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| 1:6:1 classroom -- special education classroom consisting of one teacher, six students, and one teacher's aide 1:12:1 classroom -- special education classroom consisting of one teacher, twelve students, and one teacher's aide. 5p- syndrome -- see Cri-du-Chat syndrome. 45,X -- see Turner syndrome. 47,X -- see XXX, XXXX, and XXXXX syndromes. 504/ADA plan -- a written plan that provides for reasonable accommodations or modifications in assessment and instruction as a means to "create a fair and level playing field" for students who qualify as disabled under Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). Aarne-Thompson Tale Types -- a classification system for folktales (see illustration). Aarskog-Scott syndrome (faciodigitogenital dysplasia [FDGY]) -- short stature, brachydactyly, widow's peak, broad nasal bridge with small nose, hypertelorism, shawl scrotum, cryptorchidism, learning disabilities and behavioral problems are present in a subset of patients, ptosis, eye movement problems, strabismus, orthodontic problems, occasional cleft lip/palate. Caused by mutations in the FGD1 gene at Xp11.21; X-linked recessive with partial expression in some females; rare autosomal dominant cases reported. abacus -- a tool composed of beads on vertical rods that is used by students with visual impairments to help them with mathematical calculations. abaft -- toward or at the stern; aft abandoned baby laws -- see safe-haven laws. abandonment -- leaving a child alone or in the care of another under circumstances that suggest an intentional abdication of parental responsibility. abdomen -- the portion of the body located between the diaphragm and the pelvic or hip bones. If the abdomen is swollen, it is called abdominal distension. (see illustration). abdominal cavity -- the body cavity that holds the bulk of the viscera. It is the space between the abdominal wall and the spine. It contains the lower part of the esophagus, the stomach, small intestine, colon, rectum, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, spleen, kidneys, and bladder. abducted -- having part of the body moved away from the body's mid-line (see illustration). abduction -- limbs move outward, away from the body (see illustration). ABC-X Family Crisis Model -- a theoretical model of family crisis in which A denotes the stressor, B denotes the family's crisis-meeting resources, C denotes the family's definition of the stressor, and X denotes the crisis (Reuben Hill). abhor -- to regard with extreme repugnance; loathe; hate ability grouping -- characteristic of any program in which school personnel use test scores or school performance to assign same-grade students at similar levels to groups or classes with markedly different levels of academic preparation. ability to manage stress and crisis effectively -- one of the six major qualities (commonly found in emotionally healthy families) identified by researchers working within the family strengths framework. abnegation -- denial, especially self-denial abortifacient -- anything used to induce abortion. abortion -- expulsion of a fetus from the uterus before it is sufficiently developed to survive on its own; commonly used to describe only artificially induced terminations of pregnancy. ABR -- see auditory brainstem response. abrogate -- to abolish by authoritative action; to treat as nonexistent abruptio placenta -- separation of the placenta from the uterus before the baby is delivered. Complete separation brings about immediate death of the fetus. Because it often results in severe bleeding, it can also cause maternal death. Cesarean section must be performed immediately and quickly (also called placental abruption) (see illustration). abscesses -- localized collections of pus in cavities caused by the disintegration of tissue. They are usually the consequence of bacterial infections. absence seizures -- generalized seizures characterized by brief lapses of consciousness, usually lasting no more than 10 seconds. Also called 'petit mal' seizures. Eye blinking and twitching of the mouth may accompany these seizures. The person has a brief interruption of consciousness and appears unresponsive. They may appear "blank" or "staring" without any other indication of a seizure except fluttering eyelids. The seizures may go unnoticed. Simple absence seizures are just stares. Complex absence seizures include changes in muscle activity, such as eye blinks, tasting movements of the mouth, hand movements, contracting or relaxing muscles. Complex absence seizures last more than 10 seconds, generally. Atypical absence seizures commonly last more than 10 seconds, with a gradual beginning and ending. The person will stare but is often somewhat responsive. Many people who have atypical absence seizures have Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. absolute risk -- refers to the rate of occurrence of disability due to a teratogen. For instance, children of mothers who are chronic alcoholics have a 45% chance of having Fetal Alcohol Syndrome. There are no absolute teratogens, however. An absolute risk for developmental delay would only happen if there were a diagnosed syndrome or disability, and the characteristics are known. absolute teratogens -- there are no absolute teratogens. absorption -- the process by which the products of digestion are transferred from the intestinal tract into the blood or lymph or by which substances are taken up by the cells. abstemious -- marked by restraint especially in the consumption of food or alcohol; reflecting much restraint abstruse -- difficult to comprehend; recondite abuse -- to mistreat, attack, or cause harm to another individual. academic content standards -- standards that define the knowledge, skills, and understanding that students should attain in academic subjects. academic development -- the development of abilities needed for school-related activities, including reading, writing, and mathematics. academic preschool and kindergarten programs -- educational programs in which teachers structure young children's learning, teaching letters, numbers, colors, shapes, and other academic skills through formal lessons, often using repetition and drill. academic readiness skills -- abilities needed for school-related activities including reading, writing, and mathematics. academic redshirting -- the practice of postponing children's entry into kindergarten to allow another year for growth and maturity. academic skills -- skills needed to achieve within a school setting, including reading, writing, mathematics, and problem-solving. academic (preacademic) skills curriculum model -- a model that focuses on reading, writing, arithmetic, and other skills needed in a school setting. acceleration -- involves students skipping one or more grades in order to experience higher levels of instruction and/or attending a higher- grade-level program for part of the school day. acceleration programs -- educational programs that encourage children to move rapidly through the usual course work, compressing the time usually spent in each course (a la Billy Madison); a process whereby students are allowed to achieve at a rate that is consistent with their capacity. accent -- a normal variation in the surface characteristics of a language. acceptance -- the feeling of being loved and appreciated, contributes to self esteem. accessibility -- adaptations of the environment aimed at equalizing participation opportunities for persons with disabilities. accessibility, parental -- the type of parental involvement that occurs when a parent is in the physical presence of a child but is not interacting directly with that child. access technology -- high-tech and low-tech devices and software that allow persons with visual impairments to gain access to computers and other forms of information. acetabulum -- the deep socket on the outer surface of the pelvis (hip bone) into which the head of the femur (thigh bone) fits to form the hip joint. The acetabulum is the point where the three components of the pelvis (ilium, ischium, and pubis) meet. accident -- an unexpected or unplanned event that may result in physical harm or injury. accommodating style -- a style of conflict resolution characterized by non-assertive but cooperative behavior; accommodaters subjugate their own wants and needs to those of others. accommodation -- According to Piaget, an alteration of existing cognitive structures to allow for new information; involves a change of understanding; a change in assessment procedures that allows a child to participate in the assessment but does NOT alter what the assessment measures or its comparability; takes in new information, balances with previous knowledge, and adjusts response. accommodation (special education) -- A change in how a student gains access to the curriculum or demonstrates his or her learning that does not substantially alter the content or level of instruction. accommodation (mental) -- changing an existing mental schema (pattern) to fit new information. accommodation (visual) -- the process by which the eye adjusts to focus on near objects. accountability -- being held responsible for something, such as holding schools, administrators, and teachers responsible for student achievement. accreditation -- voluntary submission to a standard through a review process, usually consisting of a self-study and a verification. acculturation -- the inter-meshing of cultural traits and values with those of the dominant culture. acculturative stress -- stress associated with making a transition from one culture to another. accuracy -- a theory's ability to predict future events or explain past ones correctly; one of Sidman's six criteria against which a theory should be measured. acetabulum -- the cup-shaped cavity of the hip bone that holds the head of the femur in place, creating a joint. acetylcholine -- a common neurotransmitter, particularly involved in long-term memory formation. Specifically released at neuromuscular junctions, it's present at higher levels during rest and sleep. These junctions are at the terminal between a motor nerve axon and a skeletal muscle fiber. achalasia -- a disorder of the esophagus, which affects the movement of food toward the stomach. Symptoms are backflow of food, chest pain, cough, difficulty swallowing, heartburn, and unintentional weight loss. It is a rare disorder achievement tests -- a measurement of the knowledge and/or skills a student possesses. Although often thought to assess what a student has achieved in school, some commercially published achievement tests contain many items measuring a student's out-of-school learning or the students' inherited academic aptitudes. Achondroplasia -- the most common form of short stature, associated with disproportionately shortened limbs, relatively large head, prominent forehead, depressed nasal bridge, trident-shaped hand, and normal intelligence; apneic episodes, hydrocephalus, hypotonia, hyperreflexia, clonus, may be cervical spinal cord compression. Caused by a point mutation in the gene coding for fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 on FGFR3 (4p16.3). 80% of cases are new mutations with autosomal dominant inheritance when passed from an affected individual; 1 of every 15,000 to 25,000 live births. Prenatal diagnosis is available for this condition (see illustration). acid base balance -- in metabolism, the balance of acid to base necessary to keep the pH of the blood neutral. acidotic -- having too much acid in the bloodstream. The normal pH is 7.42; acidosis is generally less than 7.30 (acidosis). acknowledgement -- when a child is born with a disability, parents sometimes go through several stages similar to grief. During this stage, parents mobilize their strengths to confront the conditions created by the birth. They begin to involve themselves in the intervention and treatment process; are better able to comprehend information or directions provided by professionals; may join advocacy groups concerning the child's disability; and accept the child. Also parents at this stage can direct their energies to challenges external to themselves. acoustic -- sound as it relates to hearing and the production of speech; a part of the ear canal name (external acoustic meatus) ... acquaintance rape -- non-consensual sex between adults who know each other. acquired -- a disability or condition that comes into existence during development through an accident, illness, or other unknown reasons. acquired brain injury -- injury that may result from traumatic brain injury (TBI) or from strokes and other vascular accidents, infectious diseases, anoxic injuries (hanging, near drowning), anesthetic accidents, severe blood loss, metabolic disorders, and ingestion of toxic products. acquired disabilities -- disabilities caused by accident, illness, or child abuse. acquired hearing loss -- hearing loss that develops after a baby is born; also called adventitious hearing loss. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) -- severe infections, progressive motor and cognitive deficits, ultimate death. The first cases of AIDS were reported in 1981; in 1983 the human immunodeficiency virus was first identified. The virus is found in bodily fluids, including blood, semen, and breast milk. The virus attacks cells in the organs; targets the helper T4 lymphocyte, or CD4 cell, that coordinates the immune response; and can lie dormant for years. The child who has contracted AIDS appears to be chronically ill with symptoms including intermittent fevers, recurrent diarrhea, failure to thrive, and/or acute weight loss; lymph node, liver, and spleen enlargement; high risk for bacterial infections such as sepsis, meningitis, pneumonia, internal organ abscesses, bone and joint infections, congestive heart failure, lymphoid interstitial pneumonia, anemia, and/or kidney failure. Associated developmental complications are cognitive deficits, fine and gross motor impairments, speech and language delays, visual-spatial deficits, short-term memory problems, attention difficulties, deficits in social behavior; maternal or teratogenic cause. acquired injury -- an injury that occurs after birth; not congenital. acrocephaly -- a congenital abnormality of the skull; the top of the skull assumes a cone shape. Acrocephalosyndactyly, type I -- see Apert syndrome. Acrocephalosyndactyly, type II -- see Carpenter syndrome. Acrocephalosyndactyly, type V -- see Pfeiffer syndrome Acrofacial Dysostosis (Nager syndrome) -- migrognathia (small jaw), malar hypoplasia (underdeveloped cheeks), downward slant of the eyelids, high nasal bridge, external ear defects, occasional cleft lip or palate, asymmetric limb anomalies (hypoplastic thumb or radius [a bone in the lower arm]), scoliosis, severe conductive hearing loss, occasional heart or kidney defects, mental retardation present in ~16%. Caused by mutation on chromosome 9q32, CFP37 gene. Most cases are new mutations with evidence of autosomal dominant and rare autosomal recessive. acromegaly -- a chronic metabolic disorder in which there is too much growth hormone and the bodily tissues gradually enlarge. Symptoms are body odor, carpal tunnel syndrome, weakness, fatigue, enlarged bones of the face, enlarged feet, enlarged hands, enlarged glands in the skin, enlarged jaw and tongue, excessive height, excessive sweating, headache, hoarseness, joint pain, limited joint movement, sleep apnea, swelling of bony areas around a joint, thickening of the skin, skin tags, widely spaced teeth, widened fingers or toes, excessive hair growth in women, unintentional weight gain. It occurs in about 6/100,000 adults. ACTH -- adrenocorticotropin hormone. This stress related substance is produced by the pituitary gland. It's released into the body as a result of injury, emotion, pain, infections, or other trauma. actin -- protein involved in muscle contraction actin filaments -- one of the contractile elements in skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle fibers. action/reaction service model -- professionals work together only in the sense that they prescribe or teach another member of the chain that is linked by a common client. action research -- informal collection of information about a child or children, non-standardized. action-specific energy -- the energy associated with a signed stimulus. active learning -- being involved in learning situations by asking questions, seeking help, and initiating activities. active listening -- technique for clarifying the message and the feelings; attending to the speaker by hearing, interpreting, sorting, and analyzing what is being said or communicated. activity areas or centers -- organized space within a classroom dedicated to activities based on a theme or developmental domain. Typically designed to accommodate small groups of children and a teacher. activity-based approach -- Instruction that is integrated into the daily activities or play rather than given as a separate lesson or instructional activity. activity-based curriculum -- the activity-based curriculum builds on the consistent use of daily activities, events, and interactions. It is based on a naturalistic environment that encourages participating in meaningful activities of interest and relevance to children, and it includes activities that promote interactions between children. activity-based intervention -- systematic distribution of teaching and learning across routine activities, planned activities, or child-initiated activities at school and at home. activity concentration -- presenting learning materials in a way that shows their relationship to each other. Example: Magic markers and paper displayed together rather than separately. activity patterns -- varying activities so that the new and old are in an interesting as well as developmentally appropriate pattern for young children. activity task analysis -- analysis that identifies each step that is needed to master a certain task. actualizing tendency -- Rogers: the built in motivation present in every life form to develop to its potential to the fullest extent possible; the "you" you will become, if all goes well. actual self -- how adolescents see themselves. acuity -- a measure of the sharpness and clarity of vision. It is determined usually with an assessment such as the Snellen chart. acumen -- keenness and depth of perception, discernment, or discrimination, especially in practical matters. acute -- The sudden onset of an illness; usually of short duration; a chronic problem may have periodic acute episodes. acute condition -- medical disorder that is serious and requires immediate attention, but that can be treated and probably cured. acute fatty liver -- an accumulation of triglycerides in the liver, caused by obesity, diabetes, excessive consumption of alcohol, IV drugs, and exposure to toxic substances. Symptoms are loss of appetite, great big liver, and abdominal discomfort; usually reversible if the offense is withdrawn (illustration over there just shows a liver, not an acute fatty liver, though it is cute). acute health problem -- crisis point of disease is rapidly reached. acute inflammatory peripheral neuropathy -- ascending paralysis following a virus infection (also called Guillain-Barre syndrome) acute lymphocytic (lymphoblastic or lymphoid) leukemia (ALL) -- a fast growing cancer of white blood cells. This is the most common form of leukemia in children. Symptoms are similar to those listed below for AML. acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) -- a fast-growing cancer of the blood and bone marrow. Symptoms are low numbers of healthy blood cells and high numbers of leukemia cells in the blood. If white blood cells are low (white blood cells fight infection), symptoms are fever and frequent infections. If red blood cells are low (red blood cells oxygenate the body), symptoms are anemia, tiredness, shortness of breath, and pale skin. If platelets are low (platelets control bleeding), symptoms are easy bleeding or bruising and tiny red spots under the skin. Other symptoms are pain in the bones and/or joints, lack of appetite, headache, and vomiting. acute polyneuropathy -- short-term ascending paralysis following a viral illness; most common is Guillain-Barre syndrome. acute stress disorder -- an anxiety disorder characterized by a cluster of dissociative and anxiety symptoms occurring within one month of a traumatic event. (Dissociation is a psychological reaction to trauma in which the mind tries to cope by "sealing off" some features of the trauma from conscious awareness.) Acute stress disorder is caused by exposure to trauma, which is a stressor that causes intense fear and, usually, involves threats to life or serious injury to oneself or others. Examples are rape, mugging, combat, natural disasters, etc. The symptoms of stress disorder include one or more dissociative and anxiety symptoms combined with the avoidance of reminders of the traumatic event. Dissociative symptoms include emotional detachment, temporary loss of memory, depersonalization, and derealization. Anxiety symptoms connected with acute stress disorder include irritability, physical restlessness, sleep problems, inability to concentrate, and being easily startled. Other symptoms are muscle tension (shakiness, headaches), excessive sweating, palpitations, shortness of breath, and various gastrointestinal symptoms. acute stressors -- events that place strain on a family and occur as periodic incidents related to a child's disability. ADA -- see Americans with Disabilities Act. ADA plan / 504 -- A written plan that provides for reasonable accommodations or modifications in assessment and instruction as a means to "create a fair and level playing field" for students who qualify as disabled under Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act and the Americans with Disabilities Act. adaptability -- in family systems theory, this is a concept used to describe a family's ability to change in response to a crisis or stressful situation. adaptable intervention model -- flexible procedures employed within non-categorical models, emphasizing the functionality of behavior rather than its developmental form or sequence. adaptation -- in Piaget's theory, the process of building schemes through direct interaction with the environment. Made up of two complementary processes: assimilation and accommodation. adaptation phase -- the transition period of adjustment many parents experience after first learning that their child has a developmental delay. adapted participation -- Use of an alternative means of participation (i.e., orient head or eye gaze instead of pointing, use of communication board instead of speaking.) adaptive behaviors -- day to day knowledge and skills necessary for independence, including communication, self-care, social skills, home living, leisure, and self-direction. Deficits in adaptive behavior comprise one component of identifying students with mental retardation. adaptive coping skills -- those skills a child uses to meet personal needs and to adapt to the demands of the environment. adaptive development -- The development of skills that promote independence and facilitate a child's ability to fit into his or her environment. According to PL 105-17, a developmental delay is defined as a delay in one or more of 5 areas, including this one (the others are cognitive development, communication development, social or emotional development, and physical development including vision and hearing). adaptive devices (assistive devices or equipment) -- equipment, such as a hearing aid, designed to improve body functioning. adaptive equipment -- equipment that has been modified, such as a wheelchair, to meet the needs of a person with disabilities; mobility devices, prostheses, and prescribed alterations of standard furnishings to meet the needs of children with disabilities. adaptive fit -- compatibility between demands of a task or setting and a person's needs and abilities. adaptive instruction -- modifies the way in which instruction is delivered and the environment where the learning takes place in order to accommodate unique learner characteristics. adaptive physical education -- physical education that is modified to address the needs of children with disabilities.This includes assessment and instruction, accurate assessment data, IEP goals and objectives, benchmarks, least restrictive environment. adaptive reflexes -- mature, automatic reflexes such as sucking or swallowing; see postural reflexes. adaptive skills -- conceptual, social, and practical skills that facilitate an individual's functioning in community, family, and school settings. ADD -- attention deficit disorder; In 1997, ADD and ADHD were allowed to be considered disabilities, according to IDEA, under the umbrella of Other Health Impairments. addiction -- the quality of being physically dependent on a habit-forming drug. additions -- articulation disorder in which a person inserts extra sounds in spoken words. adduction -- limbs move inward toward the body (see illustration). adenine -- one of the four nucleotides (chemicals) that comprise DNA. adenocarcinoma -- cancer of the epithelial tissues (skin, glands, etc.) that originates in glandular tissue. adenoidectomy -- the surgical removal of the adenoids. adenoids -- lymphatic tissue of the nasopharynx (see illustration). adenoma sebaceum -- benign cutaneous growths usually seen around the nose; occurs in persons with tuberous sclerosis; resembles acne (see illustration). adenosine deaminase deficiency (ADA deficiency) -- inherited combined immunodeficiency syndrome in which children have repeated severe infections; caused by a deficiency of the enzyme adenosine deaminase; autosomally recessive inheritance. Related complications are early death, neurological deficits, failure to thrive, bone abnormalities. There are prenatal diagnostic tests available for this deficiency. Incidence is rare, recurrent risk for siblings, 25%. adenoside triphosphate (ATP) -- a compound with energy-storing phosphate bonds that is the main energy source for all cells. adequate yearly progress -- According to No Child Left Behind, each state has to define and then report how their school districts and schools are meeting the goal of proficiency in math, reading, and science by 2014. States are required to set annual progress targets and annual measurable objectives for student progress and ensure that school districts test at least 95% of their students. ADHD -- attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In 1997, ADD and ADHD were allowed to be considered disabilities, according to IDEA, under the umbrella of Other Health Impairments. ADHD--combined type -- subtype of ADHD in which individuals have symptoms of both inattention and hyperactivity-impulsivity. ADHD--predominantly hyperactive-impulsive type -- subtype of ADHD in which individuals have as a primary symptom a high amount of movement and an inability to "put on the brakes" before acting. ADHD--predominantly inattentive type -- subtype of ADHD in which individuals' inability to attend is a primary symptom. ad hominem -- see irrelevant attack on opponent adipose -- fat cells adipose connective tissue -- large internal fat droplets that distend cells so that cytoplasm is reduced to a thin layer and the nucleus is displaced to the edge of the cells. It most often appears in groups. When it accumulates in large numbers, it becomes the predominant cell type and forms adipose tissue. It serves as a storage site for lipids, pads and protects certain organs and regions of the body, and forms an insulating layer under the skin that helps regulate body temperature. adjustment -- the ability of a child to adapt socially and emotionally. adolescence -- the developmental period between childhood and adulthood (see illustration). adolescent egocentrism -- an adolescent's belief that his or her thoughts and ideas are unique and are not understood by others. adolescent stage -- time starting about 10 to 16 years of age, depending on physical maturity, and extending to adulthood (see illustration above). adoption -- legal process by which adult couples or singles voluntarily take a child born of other parents and raise him or her as their own child. adrenal cortex -- the perimeter of the adrenal gland. adrenal gland -- orange colored endocrine glands located on the top of both kidneys. They are triangular shaped and measure about 1/2 inch in height and 3 inches in length. Each gland consists of a medulla (the center) which is surrounded by the adrenal cortex. The medulla is responsible for producing epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline). The cortex produces other hormones necessary for fluid and electrolyte (salt) balance in the body such as cortisone and aldosterone. The cortex also makes sex hormones, but this only becomes a problem if there is overproduction. adrenal hyperplasia -- a common inherited form of adrenal insufficiency. It is due to mutations in the genes coding for several enzymes needed to produce vital adrenal cortex hormones: cortisol and aldosterone. These disorders are inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern. Symptoms are short height, early signs of puberty, acne, irregular periods, possible trouble getting pregnant, excess facial hair, dehydration, low blood pressure, low blood sugar level, low body salt levels, altered development of the external genitalia, and benign testicular tumors and infertility. adrenaline -- a potent stimulant of the autonomic nervous system. It increases blood pressure, heart rate, and other physiological changes needed for a "fight or flight" response. Under conditions of stress, fear, or excitement, this hormone is released from the adrenal gland into the bloodstream. When it reaches the liver, it stimulates the release of glucose for rapid energy. Abrupt increases caused by anger can constrict heart vessels, requiring the heart to pump with higher pressure. Also known as epinephrine. Adrenoleukodystrophy (X-linked ALD) -- progressive neurological disorder of white matter resulting from accumulation of very long chain fatty acids; both childhood and adult onset forms occur. Adult onset form is characterized mainly by adrenal insufficiency and usually presents with peripheral neuropathy (disturbance of the peripheral nerves) and causes slowly progressive paraparesis (partial paralysis) and impotence. Only 20% of adult onset cases experience brain involvement. Boys with the childhood onset form are symptom free at birth and develop typically until the end of the first decade. Symptoms often begin with behavioral problems and progress to include spasticity, ataxia, peripheral neuropathy, speech disturbance, progressive intellectual deterioration, seizures, endocrine abnormalities, conductive hearing loss. Caused by a mutation in ABCD1 gene at Xq28, X-linked recessive. Adrenoleukodystrophy, neonatal form -- a disorder of peroxisomes (minute organelles in certain cells that are involved in the processing of long chain fatty acids) characterized by congenital hypotonia, onset in early infancy of seizures, adrenal insufficiency, mild dysmorphic facial features (high forehead, epicanthal folds, broad nasal bridge, and forward-tipping nostrils), mental retardation, cataracts, visual and auditory impairments. Developmental progress is achieved during the first year of life followed by regression. Death in early childhood is usual, but there are known cases of affected individuals surviving until the second or third decade of life. Caused by an absence of peroxisomes, resulting from mutations in a number of autosomal peroxin (PEX) genes, autosomal recessive. adroit -- having or showing skill, cleverness, or resourcefulness in handling situations, clever, dexterous Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) -- a semi-structured psychodynamic interview in which the subject is encouraged to talk about their early attachments, their feelings about their parents, and to describe any significant losses and childhood trauma. The transcripts are then rated, not so much for content as for style, picking up features like coherence of the narrative and capacity to recall painful events. Subjects are classified into one of four categories: secure autonomous, dismissing, preoccupied, and unresolved/disorganized. When given to pregnant mothers the AAI has been shown to predict the attachment status of the infants at one year with 70% accuracy; Mary Main. adult-directed activities -- see teacher-guided instruction adult service agencies -- agencies with a major focus on providing services and supports to help people with disabilities become more independent as adults. Adult service agencies include rehabilitation services, social services, mental health services, and the like. advance directives -- In children with severe disabilities, the term is used to define the level of intervention a parent wants provided in the event of a life-threatening emergency or illness of the child. adventitious -- a disability that develops from disease or trauma any time after birth. adventitiously blind -- a profound or severe visual impairment that occurs after the age of 2 years. adventitious deafness -- see post-lingual deafness adventitious hearing loss -- hearing loss that develops after birth; also called acquired hearing loss. adventitious visual impairment -- any visual impairment that develops after birth. adversary (divorce) procedure -- a divorce procedure that requires one member of a married couple to file a complaint of wrongdoing against the other member. advocacy -- supporting and/or favoring the cause of another. advocacy group -- individuals who work collectively for a particular cause or a particular person. advocate -- one who maintains, defends, or pleads the cause of another; in early childhood terms, an advocate is someone who furthers the principles and issues of the field by speaking to others about such issues. (see illustration) Aesir -- in Norse myths, the name for the gods. (see illustration) aesthetic movement -- an artistic movement in the 1880s in the US. The chief characteristic was its concentration on the "science of the beautiful" or the "philosophy of taste." (see illustration) aesthetics -- sensitivity to what is beautiful; the study of beauty. aesthetic sensitivity -- keen perception of the characteristics and complexity of the arts and the interrelationships of the arts with other domains; a characteristic of many students who are gifted. affect -- Compared to "effect", this is how to use "affect": 1) can be used as a noun to describe facial expression (The young man with schizophrenia had a flat affect); 2) used as a verb (How does the crime rate affect hiring levels by local police forces?); 3) to influence (The arrow affected the aardvark.) Most of the time affect is a verb. Another word for emotion. Compare to effect. affection -- Freud: aim-inhibited sexuality. We connect affectionately because we can't spend all of our time having sex. affective -- social emotional responses that influence the behavior of others. affective assessment -- a measurement of a student's interests, attitudes, and/or values. affective disorders -- psychiatric diseases with multiple aspects, including biological, behavioral, social, and psychological factors. Major depressive disorder, bipolar disorders, and anxiety disorders are the most common affective disorders. The effects of these disorders -- such as difficulties in interpersonal relationships and an increased susceptibility to substance abuse -- are major concerns for parents, teachers, physicians, and the community. Affective disorders can result in symptoms ranging from mild and inconvenient to severe and life- threatening; the latter account for more than 15% of deaths due to suicide. affective readiness (for reading) -- a prerequisite to reading involving the child's positive self-concept. afferent -- in the nervous system, afferent refers to the signals sent from the periphery to the brain. affiliated kin -- unrelated individuals who are treated as if they are related. affinal relatives -- relatives who are related only by marriage. AFP -- see alpha-fetoprotein. A-frame relationship -- a type of relationship in which partners have very weak self-identities and are extremely dependent on each other and on the relationship. afterbirth -- see placenta. afterimage -- after staring at a page of solid color for about 30 seconds, then looking at a dot on a page of either gray or white, our eyes will see color on the blank page. The color is usually the complement or near complement of the color first looked at. After School care -- programs designed to care for children after the regular academic school day. agape -- according to sociologist John Alan Lee's theory of the origin of love, one of the six basic styles of loving: altruistic love -- unselfish, self-giving, self-sacrificing love. age appropriateness -- a component of the developmentally appropriate practice (DAP) guidelines, which refers to the need for the learning environment and curriculum to be based on the typical development of children. age-appropriate placement -- a child's educational placement in an instructional program consistent with chronological age rather than developmental level. ageism -- a form of prejudice or discrimination in which one judges an older person negatively solely on the criterion of age. age-level characteristics -- those features of children's development and behavior that are most common among a given age group. agenesis – congenital absence of an organ or part, usually caused by a lack of primordial tissue and failure of development in the embryo. agenesis of the corpus callosum -- absence of the band of white matter that connects the two hemispheres of the brain. age of viability -- the point at which postnatal survival is possible; the age at which the fetus can first survive if born early. Occurs sometime between the 22nd and 26th week of pregnancy. age-out -- no longer qualify for certain services because of age. aggression -- actions that injure people, things, or emotions. Freud: according to Freud, aggression is instinctive and innate. aggressive communication -- a style of interpersonal communication that attempts to hurt or put down the receiver while protecting the aggressor's self esteem. agility -- one of the four basic motor capacities with tremendous growth during the middle childhood years: Quicker and more accurate movements are evident in such movements as jumping rope, hopscotch, tag, and soccer. agonist -- a medication that enhances certain neural activity; or a muscle that works in concert with another muscle to produce movement. Agoraphobia -- fear of being in places where help might not be available, and is usually manifested by fear of crowds, bridges, or of being outside alone. Symptoms include: fear of being alone, fear of losing control in public, fear of being in places where escape is difficult, becoming housebound, feelings of detachment or estrangement from others, feelings of helplessness, dependence on others, feeling that the body is unreal, feeling that the environment is unreal, panic attacks, unusual temper or agitation with trembling or twitching, lightheadedness, dizziness, excessive sweating, skin flushing, breathing difficulty, chest pain, nausea and vomiting, numbness and tingling, abdominal distress, confusion, fear of going crazy, fear of dying. Freud: the ego's method of self-limitation for avoiding the anxiety of acting out a sexual desire. Don't leave home without id. agrarian societies -- agricultural societies in which parents or other kin members select marriage mates for their children. agyria -- absence of normal convolutions on the surface of the brain. Aicardi Syndrome -- infantile spasms associated with congenital absence of the corpus callosum and abnormalities of the eyes. Cause is either X-linked dominant (gene linked to Xp22) or new mutation. Associated complications are poorly controlled seizures, severe mental retardation, visual impairment. No prenatal diagnosis available. Incidence is rare, occurring only in females; recurrent risk, rare in families. Can cause deaf-blindness. X-linked dominant. AIDS -- see Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome AIDS-related dementia -- generalized cognitive and behavioral deterioration due to brain dysfunction caused by AIDS. Aid to Families With Dependent Children -- a US government program discontinued in 1996 which provided aid to needy families or particular family members. airborne transmission -- when germs are expelled into the air through coughs/ sneezes, and transmitted to another individual through tiny moisture drops (see illustration). Al-Anon -- a self-help group for families of alcoholics. Alateen -- a support group for young people with alcoholic parents, based on the Alcoholic Anonymous model. albinism -- lack of pigmentation in eyes, skin, and hair. It is caused by a defect of melanin production. The most severe kind of albinism is oculocutaneous albinism, in which there is pink or white hair, skin, and iris color; vision problems also occur. Another kind of albinism, type 1 only affects the eyes. Hermansky-Pudlak syndrome is a form of albinism caused by a single gene. It can occur with a bleeding disorder, as well as with lung and bowel disease. Other disorders that may lead to localized albinism are Chediak-Higashi syndrome, tuberous sclerosis, and Waardenburg syndrome. As well as absence of color, other symptoms of albinism can be strabismus, photophobia, nystagmus, and vision problems or blindness. Albinism is a congenital condition. It is caused by several different mutated genes, depending on the type of albinism; chromosome pairs 11, 15, 9, 5, X, and 1; sometimes autosomal recessive (see picture below) albumin -- the most abundant protein in the body. alcohol -- a legal and socially accepted drug that nevertheless is the leading cause of mental retardation in children. alcohol abuse -- a generic term that encompasses both alcoholism (addiction to alcohol characterized by compulsive drinking) and problem drinking (alcohol consumption that results in functional disability). alcoholic -- someone who consumes alcohol habitually. Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) -- a self-help group for alcoholics alcoholism -- addiction to alcohol characterized by compulsive drinking. Alcohol Related Birth Defects (ARBD) -- part of the Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder; common birth defects are attention deficits, language difficulties, learning disabilities, impulse behavior, and poor judgment. Alcohol Related Neurodevelopmental Disorder (ARND) -- part of the Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder; includes damage to the peripheral nervous system as well as the central nervous system; symptoms include problems with coordination, weakness, seizures, memory loss, and sensory deficits. aldosterone -- a hormone released by the adrenal glands. It helps the body regulate blood pressure. It increases the reabsorption of sodium and water and the release of potassium in the kidneys. This action raises blood pressure. Alexander disease -- a very rare, progressive neurological disorder characterized by macrocephaly, exaggerated startle response, optic atrophy, intellectual decline, seizures, early death, hydrocephalus, demyelination, progressive spasticity, visual impairment; bulbar signs are present in some patients. Infantile (diagnosed less than 2 years old), juvenile (diagnosed between age 2 and 12), and adult onset forms (diagnosed past age 13) have been found. Caused by a mutation in the GFAP (glial fibrillary acidic protein) gene on 17q21 chromosome, usually new mutation but some autosomal dominant. alignment -- agreement between the expected outcomes of educational experiences (standards, goals), the curriculum, and assessment. Also used to indicate continuity in expectations from one educational level to another. alimentary tract (or canal) -- the mucous membrane-lined tube of the digestive system that extends from the mouth to the anus and through which food passes, digestion takes place, and wastes are eliminated; it includes the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and intestines. Also called the digestive tract. alimony -- court-ordered financial support to a spouse or former spouse following separation or divorce. alimony myth -- according to Lenore Weitzman, the fallacious belief that most women profit from divorce by receiving high alimony payments. alkalis -- groups of bases or caustic substances that are capable of neutralizing acids to form salts. alkaptonuria -- a disorder caused by a mutation of the HAO gene on chromosome 3. HAO (homogentisic acid oxidase) is a liver enzyme which is lacking in people with alkaptonuria. This disorder makes the body unable to break down certain amino acids (tyrosine and phenylalanine). It is considered an inborn error of metabolism. Symptoms include black or inky urine, ochronosis (black stained cartilage), arthritis, osteoarthritis, pain, stiffness, joint swelling, hardened aortic and mitral valves of the heart, darkening of ear cartilage and whites of the eyes. In relation to other inborn errors of metabolism, however, it is considered relatively benign. Alkaptonuria is autosomal recessive. allegory -- a form of narrative that uses concrete images of objects, characters, and actions to stand for abstract concepts outside of the narrative. An allegory is an extended metaphor. In an allegory the plot of the narrative as well as the abstract ideas are of interest. Allegories include John Bunyan's "Pilgrim's Progress", and the parables in the New Testament. allele -- each of two forms of a gene located at the same place on the autosomes. allergies -- this involves two features: the production of immunoglobulin E, an antibody that circulates through the blood; and a mast cell (a specific cell that occurs in all body tissues but is especially common in parts of the body that are typical sites of allergic reactions, including the nose, throat, lungs, skin, and gastrointestinal tract). The tendency to develop allergies is inherited. Common allergies are foods, medicines, dust mites, hay fever, pets, pollen, mold, lactose, latex, skin products, etc. allowed foods -- foods that are eligible for reimbursement under School Lunch or Child Care Food Program Guidelines. alobar holoprosencephaly -- a cephalic disorder in which the prosencephalon (the forebrain of the embryo) fails to develop into two hemispheres. This causes defects in the development of the face and in brain structure and function. There are four classifications of holoprosencephaly. Alobar holoprosencephaly is the most serious form, in which the brain fails to separate, and is usually associated with severe facial anomalies. This form may be so severe that it often causes miscarriage or stillbirth. The most severe of facial defects is cyclopia, or the development of a single eye, located near the root of the nose, and a nose located above the eye. This is very rare. alopecia -- hair loss (different from male-pattern balding) (see picture) alpha fetoprotein (AFP) -- fetal protein found in amniotic fluid and the serum of pregnant women. It is used to test for meningomyelocele and Down syndrome in the fetus. The test is done by examination of a pregnant woman's blood. alpha male or alpha female -- dominant, successful individual. Alport syndrome -- an inherited disorder that damages tiny blood vessels in the kidneys called glomeruli, that filter waste. Symptoms are blood in the urine, loss of kidney function, and a build-up of fluids and waste products in the body. Other symptoms are decrease or loss of vision, loss of hearing, swelling around the eyes, and general bodily swelling. It is caused by a mutation in a gene for a protein in connective tissue, called collagen, (COL4A5 on the X chromosome), X-linked recessive. It can also be inherited in an autosomal recessive (COL4A3 gene or COL4A4 gene on chromosome 2) or autosomal dominant (COL4A3 or COL4A4 gene on chromosome 2) way. It is uncommon, most often affects males. One of the syndromes which can cause deaf-blindness. Alstrom syndrome -- a very rare, hereditary genetic disorder (caused by a mutated ALMS1 gene on chromosome 2, autosomal recessive). Symptoms are extra sensitivity to light (photophobia), nystagmus, and degeneration of the retina. Hearing may also be affected, sensorineural hearing loss. People who have Alstrom syndrome are often more overweight as children than their family members and also much shorter as adults. Sometimes the syndrome can caused dilated cardiomyopathy (enlarged heart), type 2 diabetes, high cholesterol and triglycerides, problems with liver and kidney function, scoliosis, digestive disturbances, high blood pressure, and thyroid problems. One of the syndromes which can cause deaf-blindness. alternate assessments -- Assessments mandated by IDEA 2004 for students who are unable to participate in required state- or district- wide assessments. They ensure that all students, regardless of the severity of their disabilities, are included in the state's accountability system. alternate feet step climbing -- climbing stairs by alternating feet. alternate form reliability -- the consistency of measured results yielded by different forms of the same test. alternative assessment -- almost any type of assessment other than standardized tests and similar developmental inventories and achievement tests. altruism -- acts done to benefit others, without expectation of reward or recognition. altruistic behavior -- actions that benefit another person, without any expected reward for the self. altruistic egoism -- the process of cooperation in which one helps others to satisfy their needs, and they in turn help one to satisfy one's own needs. altruistic parenthood -- a belief that parents are expected to take care of and provide for all of the children they bring into the world. alveoli -- Small air sacs in the lungs. Carbon dioxide and oxygen are exchanged through their walls. (see illustration) Alzheimer's syndrome or disease -- the most common form of dementia; incurable, degenerative, terminal disease, first identified by Alois Alzheimer in 1906. amalgam -- an alloy of mercury and silver used in dental fillings. amaurosis -- blindness. ambiguous genitalia -- a birth defect where the outer genitals do not have the typical appearance of either a boy or a girl. ambiguous loss -- when a family member is physically absent but psychologically present, OR physically present but psychologically absent, the family experiences highly stressful feelings. People need to find ways to accept a loss before they can move on through the grieving process, but this is difficult when there is significant ambiguity in the situation; Pauline Boss. ambivalent attachment -- characterized by inconsistent behavior toward a caregiver. ambivalent singles -- unmarried persons who are not actively seeking mates but who are open to the idea of marriage. amblyopia -- reduced vision in an eye that did not receive adequate use in early childhood; a vision problem that occurs when a child's eye does not get enough use and the visual system in the brain does not develop properly, leading to poor vision in the affected eye. It usually affects one eye but may occur in both eyes; unknown cause. (see illustration) ambulatory -- able to walk. American Association on Mental Retardation (AAMR) -- an organization of professionals from many disciplines involved in the study and treatment of mental retardation. American Sign Language (ASL) -- a language with its own vocabulary and grammar used by the majority of deaf people in the United States and Canada (see illustration). American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) -- a professional organization concerned with communication disorders. Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA) -- civil rights legislation in the US that provides a mandate to end discrimination against people with disabilities in private sector employment, all public services, public accommodations, transportation, and telecommunications (PL 101-336, 1990) amino acid - One of the chief components of proteins; obtained from the individual's diet or manufactured by living cells. amino acid disorders -- inborn errors of metabolism resulting from an enzyme deficiency involving amino acids, the building block of protein. ammonia -- a colorless, pungent gas composed of nitrogen and hydrogen, NH₃. amnesic aphasia -- see anomic aphasia. amniocentesis -- a medical test for genetic abnormalities that can be done about the 16th week of pregnancy; amniotic fluid is removed by a needle inserted through the abdominal wall and into the uterine cavity. (see picture) amnion -- a membrane that grows over the embryo and becomes filled with amniotic fluid, which protects the embryo (see diagram). amniotic fluid -- Clear fluid that surrounds and protects the developing fetus. It acts as a physical buffer for fetal movements and physical development. It is formed by fetal urine production and lung fluid secretion during fetal respirations. This fluid is sampled through amniocentesis (indicated in the amniocentesis diagram). amniotic sac -- the membrane that encloses the fetus and holds the amniotic fluid, which insulates the fetus; amnio (see illustration above). ampersand -- & amplification -- assisting the emergence of behavior and understanding that are within a child's zone of proximal development, rather than accelerating beyond the child's ability to understand and perform. amplification devices -- use of hearing aids or other electronic devices to increase the loudness of sound and reduce background noise so that select sounds can be received and understood more easily (see picture). amputation -- the severing of a limb from the body because of a birth defect, disease, or accident. amygdala -- located in the middle of the brain, this almond shaped complex of related nuclei is a critical processor area for senses. Connected to the hippocampus, it plays a role in emotionally laden memories. It contains a huge number of opiate receptor sites implicated in rage, fear, and sexual feelings. (see illustration) amylase -- an enzyme that breaks starch down into sugar. It is present in human saliva, where it begins the chemical process of digestion. amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) -- a disease of the nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord that control voluntary muscle movement. Symptoms usually don't develop until after age 50. Symptoms are loss of muscle strength and coordination. Breathing and swallowing muscles may be the first muscles affected. Other symptoms are difficulty breathing, difficulty swallowing, head drop, muscle cramps, progressive muscle weakness, paralysis, speech problems, voice changes, drooling, weight loss, swelling in extremities. In about 10% of cases, ALS is caused by a genetic defect. In the other 90%, the cause is unknown. It affects 1/100,000 people. Also known as Lou Gehrig's Disease amyotrophy -- progressive wasting and weakening of muscles anabolism -- the conversion of ingested food into products that can be used by the cells. anaclitic -- Freud: the kind of love that is directed toward an object, usually a parent. Contrast narcissistic. anaerobic glucose metabolism -- see glycolysis. anal agenesis -- see imperforate anus. anal character -- Freud: one fixed at the anal level of psychosexual development, when the libido charges the anus with energy. People stuck at this early stage are regarded as parsimonious, obstinate, hoarding, and perfectionistic. anal fistula -- an opening in the skin near the anus that leads into a blind pouch or may connect through a tunnel with the rectal canal. analgesic -- a mild pain-relieving drug anal membrane atresia -- see imperforate anus anal stage -- the second stage in Freud's model of development, during which psychic energy focuses on and is invested in and around the anus (toilet training, etc.) (1 --3 years) anal stenosis -- see imperforate anus. analysis -- Freud: the purpose of analysis is to give the ego more control over the repressed id impulses. "Where there is id, there shall ego be." The fundamental rule of analysis is to say whatever comes into one's mind without censoring any of it. See free association. analytic intelligence -- information processing skills; one of Sternberg's three broad, interacting intelligences in his Triarchic Theory of Successful Intelligences. analytic scoring -- a method of scoring a student's constructed responses involving the application of multiple evaluative criteria, one criterion at a time. After having employed the evaluative criteria separately, there may be an aggregation of these separate judgments into a final, overall evaluation. anaphase -- the stage in cell division (mitosis and meiosis) when the chromosomes move from the center of the nucleus toward the poles of the cell. anaphylaxis -- a severe allergic reaction that may cause difficulty breathing, itching, unconsciousness,and possible death. anathema -- one that is cursed by ecclesiastical authority; one that is intensely disliked or loathed, a ban or curse solemnly pronounced by ecclesiastical authority and accompanied by excommunication; the denunciation of something that is accursed; a vigorous denunciation; curse androcentrism -- the belief that men are superior to women. androgen -- any of the hormones that develop and maintain male secondary sex characteristics. androgenetic alopecia -- male-pattern baldness. Not the same as alopecia. androgen insufficiency -- not enough androgen (??) androgyny -- a type of gender identity in which the person scores high on both traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine personality characteristics. androstenol -- a pherpmone androstenone -- a pheromone Anecdotal recording -- factual narrative of an incident. (also called anecdotal notes) anemia -- disorder in which the blood has either too few red blood cells or too little hemoglobin; adjective: anemic; low hemoglobin in the blood – normal is 4.2 million/mm³ to 6.1 million/mm³. anencephaly -- birth defect in which either the whole brain or all but the most primitive regions of the brain are missing. Malformation of the brain due to a defect in the closure of the head portion of the embryonic neural tube. The area above the brain stem is severely malformed; incompatible with prolonged survival. Associated complications are diaphragmatic defects, hypoplasia of lungs and heart; not compatible with life. Cause unknown; multifactorial. Can be diagnosed prenatally through ultrasound, amniocentesis, measurement of alpha-fetoprotein in the amniotic fluid. Incidence is 0.5/1000 to 10/1000; recurrent risk for siblings, 2% to 5%. anesthetic -- a strong pain-killing drug that blocks sensation. aneurysm -- an abnormal widening or ballooning of a portion of an artery due to weakness in the wall of the blood vessel. Symptoms depend on the location of the aneurysm. Angelman syndrome -- a chromosomal disorder (deletion of 15q11 -- q13 on the maternally inherited chromosome or paternal inheritance of both copies of chromosome 15) in which children appear fine at birth but start having feeding problems at one or two months and notice developmental delays by 6 to 12 months. Characteristics are seizures, speech problems, hyperactivity, small head size with brachycephaly (short head), movement disorders, "puppet like" gait, large mouth, prominent jaw, ataxia, sudden bursts of inappropriate laughter, generalized depigmentation of hair, mental retardation, paucity of speech, hyperactivity, chewing or mouthing of objects, fascination with water, hand flapping, sleep disturbances, gorging food, and functional disorders; new mutation, but can be autosomal dominant; see Chromosome 15 disorders. anger -- a relatively stable (not temporary) tendency to perceive situations as frustrating, unfair, or threatening; a stage of grieving. angina -- a chest pain or discomfort that occurs when an area of the heart muscle doesn't get enough iron-rich blood. anima -- Jung: the feminine soul. The female aspect present in the collective unconscious of men. Together, the anima and animus are a syzygy. animal archetype -- Jung: represents humanity's relationships with the animal world. animal tales -- also referred to as beast tales, these stories have animals as protagonists. Fables are often animal tales, but other types of folktales, such as the "Three Little Pigs" are also animal tales. (the Three Pigs are pictured) animism -- preoperational child believes that the natural world is ruled by willful intent like humans. animistic thinking -- the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities, such as thoughts, wishes, feelings, and intentions. animus -- Jung: the masculine soul. The male aspect present in the collective unconscious of women. Together, the anima and animus are a syzygy. aniridia -- rare genetic eye condition in which the iris is missing; can be autosomal dominant, autosomal recessive, or sporadic mutation. (see picture). ankyloglossia -- also called "tongue-tied"; the skin under the tongue (lingual frenulum) is shorter and wider than normal and restricts distinct sounds to be made. In infants, this may also result in potential feeding problems. annual goals -- targets for improvement that should be reached within one year's time. annual review -- required meeting of parents and school professionals, occurring at least once a year, to review a student's IEP and set goals for the next year. annular -- of, relating to, or forming a ring. annulment -- pronouncement that declares that a couple never had a valid marriage, returning both partners to single status and allowing them to marry others; can be religious or civil. anodyne -- serving to alleviate pain; not likely to offend or arouse tensions; innocuous anomaly -- a deviation in physical development. anomic aphasia -- word finding problems (also called amnesic aphasia or nominative aphasia). anophthalmia -- congenital absence of the eyeball; cause: multifactorial (see picture). anorexia nervosa -- an eating disorder, occurring most often in young women, in which individuals eat very little but believe that they are overweight. A not B search error -- infants' tendency to search in the first hiding spot (A) while ignoring the second (B); the error made by 8- to 12-month-old babies after an object is moved from A to B. Infants of this age search for it only in A. anotia -- a congenital absence of the external ear, the auricle (the visible part of the ear). anoxia -- lack of oxygen to the brain cells, which may result in permanent damage; cause perinatal. antagonists -- working at cross-purposes (e.g., the adductor and abductor muscles of the hip oppose each others' actions.) antecedents -- events that come before a behavior. anterior -- the front part of a structure. anterior fontanel -- the membrane-covered area on the top of the head; also called the soft spot. It generally closes by 18 months of age (see illustration). anterior horn cells -- cells in the spinal column that transmit impulses from the pyramidal tract to the peripheral nervous system. anterior/posterior positions -- front and back body orientation. anthropometric -- pertains to measurement of the body or its parts. anti-bias -- a phrase describing the development of curriculum that emphasizes an inclusive look at people and problems, extending the tenets of multicultural education and pluralism. antibiotics -- medications that cure diseases by killing or injuring bacteria. Penicillin was the fist antibiotic. Antibiotics only treat bacterial infections and are useless against viral infections and fungal infections. antibodies -- biochemical substances produced by the body's immune system that attack foreign cells or proteins that enter the body. anticathexis -- Freud: a process of internal frustration that, evolved from experiences of external frustration, sets up and maintains a repression. It involves the withdrawal of libido from whatever is being repressed. Anticathexes also oppose the impulsive cathexes otherwise made by the id toward objects. See cathexis. anticholingeric medications -- a group of medications that act by antagonizing the effects of the neurotransmitter acetycholine. anticipation -- a term used in genetics to denote an expansion in triplet repeats from one generation to the next, leading to a more severe manifestation of the disease (e.g., Fragile X syndrome). anticipatory grief -- the grief expressed prior to the death of a loved one. anticonvulsants -- medication prescribed to control seizures (convulsions). antidepressants -- medications used to control major depression. antifeminists -- the conservative branch of the men's movement, anti-feminists believe that male dominance is natural and therefore women's attempts to attain gender equality must be resisted. anti-gay prejudice -- also called homophobia, negative attitudes toward homosexuality and homosexuals. antigens -- a substance that causes the formation of antibodies antihistamine -- a drug that counteracts the effects of histamines, substances involved in allergic reactions. anti-inflammatory -- designed to reduce inflammation. antioxidant -- chemicals that prevent the oxidation of other compounds. We should all eat antioxidant rich foods, such as apples, onions, soybeans, blueberries, cranberries, green or black tea, red wines, dark chocolate, etc. antipathy -- opposition in feeling; settled aversion or dislike; distaste; an object of aversion; enmity antipsychotic medications -- medications used to treat psychosis. antiretroviral agents (ARVs) -- a category of medications used to treat retroviral infections (i.e., HIV/AIDS). antisocial behavior -- a pattern of behavior that is aggressive, defiant, uncooperative, irresponsible, and/or disobedient. antisocial personality disorder -- a condition characterized by persistent disregard for, and violation of, the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood. Deceit and manipulation are central features of this disorder. For this diagnosis to be given, the individual must be at least 18, and must have had some symptoms of Conduct Disorder (i.e., delinquency) before age 15. This disorder is only diagnosed when these behaviors become persistent and very disabling or distressing. Individuals with this disorder have an increased risk of dying early by violent means (e.g., suicide, accidents, and homicide). Prolonged unemployment, interrupted education, broken marriages, irresponsible parenting, homelessness, and frequent incarceration are common with this disorder. (sociopathic personality; psychopathic personality). antiviral -- a group of drugs used to treat infection by a virus. anus -- the external opening of the rectum. anxiety -- Freud: three types: reality (anxiety about the external world), normal or moral (anxiety about the superego's [originally the parents'] punishing shoulds and oughts), and neurotic (anxiety that a repressed sexual wish might surface). Anxiety is felt only by the ego and might have hereditary components. In his later work, Freud referred to anxiety as a danger signal. Rogers: what one feels in a threatening situation, which leads to psychosis. Anxiety is also an emotion that is a part of grief. See anxiety disorder -- a mental disorder characterized by attacks of panic that are not occasioned by life-threatening situations or extreme physical exertion. anxiety disorders of childhood -- children with these disorders have difficulty dealing with anxiety-provoking situations and with separating themselves from parents or other attachment figures (e.g., close friends, teachers, coaches). Unrealistic worries about future events, over concern about achievement, excessive need for reassurance, and somatic complaints. anxiety-withdrawal -- involves overanxiety, social withdrawal, seclusiveness, shyness, sensitivity, and other behaviors that imply a retreat from the environment rather than ahostile response to it. anxious -- refers to a style of attachment reflecting ambivalence, or both closeness and distance at the same time. anxious attachment -- a form of insecure attachment between a child and a caregiver associated with insufficient attachment. Anxiously attached children are overly dependent on caregivers (e.g., clingy, fussy). aorta -- the major artery of the body. It originates in the left ventricle of the heart and carries oxygenated blood to the rest of the body (see illustration). aortic valve -- one of the four valves of the heart; this valve is situated at the exit of the left ventricle of the heart where the aorta begins. The aortic valve lets blood from the left ventricle be pumped into the aorta but prevents blood in the aorta from returning to the heart. aortopulmonary septal defect -- a congenital anomaly in which there is abnormal communication between the aorta and the pulmonary artery (see illustration). Apert syndrome (Acrocephalosyndactyly, type I) -- premature fusion of the head so head appears misshapen, often with a high forehead, and flat occiput (back of head); widely spaced, downwardly slanting eyes; flattened nasal bridge and mid-facial area; severe syndactyly (webbed hands and feet); 30% have a cleft in the soft palate, crowding of the teeth. Caused by a gene mutation (fibroblast growth factor receptor, or FGFR2 gene on chromosome 10q26, autosomal dominant. Associated complications are hydrocephalus, developmental delays, hearing loss, mental retardation, deaf blindness. Can be detected prenatally through fetoscopy. Treatment is surgical correction of sutures that may reduce the risk of mental retardation. Incidence is 1/100,000 to 1/600,000; recurrence risk to patient's children, 50% (see illustration). Apgar scale -- A screening procedure developed by Virginia Apgar for newborns given at 1 and 5 minutes after birth to measure heart rate, respiration, color, reflex irritability, and muscle tone. Scores range from 0 (bad) to 10 (great). aphasia -- any language impairment, receptive or expressive, that is caused by brain damage. Freud: before psychoanalysis, Freud began his career as a physician and studied aphasia (language disorders). Aphasia may also be considered a learning disability. aphonia -- literally means "no voice." This may occur through injury or condition that prevents the vocal cords from coming together and vibrating. Aphonia may occur over time, and may be the result of a cold of flu. Additionally, tumors on the vocal cords would prevent vibrations. Neurological disorders such as Myasthenia Gravis, Multiple Sclerosis, Parkinson's disease, and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis involve gradual destruction of nerve tissue, which may result in vocal cord paralysis. Further, aphonia may occur due to stress, abuse (excessive talking, yelling, smoking, drinking excessive caffeine or alcohol, exposure to fumes/toxins.) aphorism -- a concise statement of a principle; a terse formulation of a truth or sentiment; adage apical -- at the tip of a structure. aplasia -- absence of an organ or tissue aplastic anemia -- occurs when the bone marrow can't produce enough red blood cells, often caused by a viral infection, exposure to certain toxic chemicals, radiation, or medications, such as antibiotics, anticonvulsants, or cancer treatments. aplomb -- complete and confident composure or self-assurance; poise; confidence apnea -- episodic arrest of breathing. apnea of prematurity -- breathing pauses due to immature central nervous system. apneic -- pertaining to an episodic arrest of breathing. apoplectic -- of, relating to, or causing stroke; affected with, inclined to, or showing symptoms of a stroke; of a kind to cause or apparently cause stroke; greatly excited or angered appeal to authority -- also known as argumentum ad verecundiam; argumentation fallacy that uses the authority in one area to pretend to validate claims in another area in which the person is not an expert. appeal to pity -- argumentation fallacy that appeals to emotion rather than arguing the merits of the case itself. applied academic skill -- skill taught to students that has immediate applicability to day-to-day life. An example is making change for a dollar. applied behavioral analysis (ABA) -- use of scientific behavioral principles to teach appropriate behaviors and reduce inappropriate behaviors. appraisal -- the process of judging or evaluating; to determine the quality of one's state of health. appreciation and affection -- one of the six major qualities (commonly found in emotionally healthy families) identified by researchers working within family strengths framework. appropriate education -- a standard required by IDEA that guarantees that students with disabilities will receive educational programs tailored to their abilities and needs. apraxia -- the loss of the ability to perform coordinated movements or manipulate objects in the absence of a motor or sensory impairment; see developmental verbal dyspraxia. aptitude tests -- tests designed to measure an individual's potential for acquiring various skills. aptitude-achievement discrepancy -- a discrepancy between different abilities and areas of achievement. aqueous humor -- the fluid in the eyeball that fills the space between the lens and the cornea (see diagram). aquiline -- curving like an eagle's beak; of, relating to, or resembling an eagle. arachnoid mater -- the delicate membrane interposed between the dura mater and the pia mater and, with them, constituting the meninges (see diagram). arbitrary -- a decision based on individual judgment or on a whim. arboreal -- of, relating to, or resembling a tree; inhabiting or frequenting trees. ARC, a National Organization on Mental Retardation -- a national organization of people with mental retardation and their parents and friends, and related professionals. ARC works to enhance the quality of life for people with mental retardation in family, school, and community settings. archaic heritage -- Freud: phylogenetic remnants of the species' mental functioning such as inherited dispositions, ideational contents, and memory traces from former generations. Unlike Jung, who coined the term "collective unconscious" (now often referred to as the "objective psyche"), Freud gave these inherited remnants little more than a mention; for him, the wishes, feelings, and aggressions derived from the present life held much more importance. However, he does discuss them as a link between group and individual psychology, a repository of the ancestral memory of the murdered primal father, and the reason why Oedipal and castration fears are often excessive in comparison to actual family-of-origin dynamics. archetype -- a set of recurrent symbols stored in humanity's "collective unconscious." According to Carl Jung, a twentieth century psychoanalyst, all humans share unconscious memories of our past as a species consisting of primordial images expressed through myth, religion, dreams, fantasies, and literature. An archetype has no form of its own, but it acts as an "organizing principle" on the things we see and do. It works the way that instincts work in Freud's theory. The archetype is like a black hole in space: You only know it's there by how it draws matter and light to itself. architectonic dysplasias -- developmental malformations affecting the neuronal architecture of the brain. archival -- refers to a type of research in which existing information, such as census data, legal records, and personal letters -- is examined. arcuate fasciculus -- a nerve tract that connects Wernicke's and Broca's areas of the brain. It is involved in the control of language; see picture. arena assessment -- One form of ecological assessment used by transdisciplinary teams where one or more team members conduct the evaluation while other team members observe. areolar connective tissue -- the most widespread connective tissue of the body. It attaches the skin to underlying tissues. It fills the spaces between various organs and thus holds them in place as well as cushions and protects them. It surrounds the blood vessels. The fibers are arranged in no particular pattern but run in all directions and form a loose network. This tissue contains collagen, elastic fibers, fibroblasts, and mast cells. arguments -- one or more premises, or reasons, that logically support a result or outcome called a conclusion. arranged marriage -- a marriage in which the partners are determined by their families; the partners do not choose one another. art -- activities designed to promote creativity, using a variety of tools and other materials to do so. Art can also be used to enhance cognition, speech and language, motor, self-help, and social-emotional development. art area -- an activity center for paining, collage making, cutting, pasting, etc. It needs to be located near water and light. arterial blood gas -- a laboratory profile test of sampled arterial blood, including pH, PaO2, and PaCO2. arterial-venous malformation (AVM) -- birth defect of blood vessels, often associated with a disastrous post-thrombotic hemorrhage. arterioles -- small blood vessels that branch from the arteries and carry arterial (oxygenated) blood from the heart to the body tissues. arteriogram -- a procedure in which a dye is injected into the bloodstream and is detected by X ray to produce an image of blood flow (see illustration). artery -- blood vessels that carry blood away from the heart. artherosclerosis -- hardening of the arteries arthritis -- an inflammatory disease of joints, with swelling, warmth, pain, and trouble moving. Kinds: juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, lupus, septic arthritis (bacterial infection of a joint). Arthrogryposis Multiplex Congenita -- multiple joint contractures beginning prenatally; caused most frequently by an underlying neurological abnormality, but can also be caused by abnormalities of muscle or connective tissue, or in utero crowding due to the lack of amniotic fluid or twinning (usually sporadic, could be teratogenic, autosomal dominant or autosomal recessive). The limitation in fetal joint mobility results in contractures. Associated conditions are cleft palate, ptosis, decreased range of ocular motion, small chin, hernias, scoliosis, defects of abdominal wall, occasional developmental delay. Prenatal diagnosis unavailable. Treatment includes casting of affected joints. Incidence unknown (see illustration). arthropathy -- any disease or abnormal condition affecting a joint. articular -- referring to the surface of a bone at a joint space. articulation -- movement of the tongue, teeth, lips, and palate to produce the sounds of language. articulation disorders -- abnormal production of speech sounds (phonemes). articulation errors -- speech sounds that are inconsistent with the native language (usually a temporary developmental irregularity) articulation problems -- speech problems such as omissions, substitutions, additions, or distortions of words artificial insemination -- the mechanical introduction of semen into the uterus in an attempt to cause pregnancy. artificialism -- preoperational child believes that humans create and influence nature. art portfolios -- a method of retaining art work that can be used for formal or informal assessment. artropathy -- any disease or abnormal condition affecting a joint. art therapist -- professional trained in therapeutic uses of pictures or other creative modes to allow children to express thoughts and experiences. art therapy -- therapy that uses art to help build children's development, creativity, and expression. ascetic -- practicing strict self-denial; austere in appearance, manner, or attitude; severe ASD -- see Autism Spectrum Disorder aseptic necrosis (osteonecrosis) -- bone death caused by poor blood supply to the area. It is most common in the hip and shoulder. It can be caused by disease, trauma, alcohol use, sickle cell anemia, radiation therapy, long-term steroid use, Gaucher disease, fractures, gout, atherosclerosis, diabetes, etc. aseptic procedure -- treatment to produce a product that is free of disease-producing bacteria. asexual reproduction -- self-replication, so the offspring carry the sole parent's genes. This may be a bacteria dividing into two, or a female plant or animal producing an identical female offspring. Most species of animals which exhibit asexual reproduction can also reproduce sexually. ASL -- see American Sign Language. Asperger Syndrome -- one of the Autism Spectrum Disorders, characterized by a lack of social skills; poor coordination, restricted range of interests; but usually normal intelligence and adequate language skills. Cause is unknown. asphyxia -- Interference with oxygenation of the blood that leads to loss of consciousness and possible brain damage, including deaf- blindness. aspirated -- inhaled aspiration pneumonia -- inflammation of the lungs caused by inhaling a foreign body, such as food, into the lungs. assent -- agreement to research or treatment, given by a child or minor who is too young to give legally valid informed consent. assertive communication -- a style of interpersonal communication that involves expressing one's self-interests and wishes without degrading or putting down the other person. assertiveness -- a person's ability to express her or his feelings and desires. assessment -- process of determining students' current functioning levels; all forms of measurement and appraisal, including tests, observations, interviews, and reports from knowledgeable sources, recorded and integrated in an organized manner and used in planning. Steps of assessment process are screening, eligibility, and program planning. assessment instruments; assessment tools -- checklists, inventories, structured observation guides, rating scales, and other systematic means of collecting and recording information about young children. assessment of emotional intelligence -- systematic observation of the components of emotional intelligence based on a concept developed by Daniel Goleman. Some of the components are self-awareness, management of emotions, empathy, and conflict resolution. assessment of multiple intelligences -- systematic observation of multiple intelligences based on a theory by Howard Gardner. assessment procedures -- methods and techniques used in the assessment process, such as observation, interviews, work sampling, collection and analysis of children's work products, and tests of various kinds. assimilation -- According to Piaget's theorizing, the cognitive process by which a person attempts to balance new information with already existing data. assisted discovery -- compared to a classroom built on Piaget's tenets, a classroom built on Vygotsky's tenets would emphasize THIS, in which teachers are on hand to guide children's learning through explanations, demonstrations, and verbal prompts within each child's zone of proximal development. Assisted discovery is helped along by peer collaboration, in which children with varying abilities work together in groups, teaching and helping one another. assisted reproductive technology (ART) -- the collective name for all treatments and procedures by which human eggs and sperm may be manipulated to produce a pregnancy. assisted ventilation -- method of aiding respiration assistive devices -- see assistive technology assistive learning devices -- hard-wired or wireless transmitting and receiving instruments that send sound from a microphone directly to the listener, minimizing the effect of distance, noise, and reverberation on clarity. assistive technology (adaptive devices) -- devices and/or services that improve the functional capabilities of a child with disabilities; any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional capabilities of a child with disabilities; including hearing aids, FM auditory trainers, canes, wheelchairs, augmentative communication devices, and computerized Braille system or voice synthesizer. assistive technology device -- PL 108-446 -- any item, equipment, or product used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities. The term does not include surgically implanted medical devices or replacement of such devices. association -- Freud: the link between one mental content and another. To Freudian thought itself, for example, some people associate trains going into tunnels. associational fluency -- the ability to produce synonyms for a given word. associative play -- a form of social play in which children sometimes share toys, but each child plays independently without mutually accepted goals or rules. assuage -- to lessen the intensity of something that pains or distresses; pacify, quiet, ease, appease, quench, relieve asthma -- an illness which, in response to a variety of stimuli, highly sensitive bronchial tubes fill with mucus and contract, leading to episodes of coughing, wheezing, and serious breathing difficulties. astigmatism -- a refractive eye problem that occurs when the surface of the cornea is uneven or structurally defective, preventing light rays from converging at one point (see illustration). astrocytes -- support cells in the central nervous system that help form the white matter. asymmetric -- having no balance or symmetry; see picture. asymmetrically permeable boundaries -- a term meaning that the influences between pairs of work-family roles run in one direction; some work-family roles affect others but not vice versa. asymmetrical tonic neck reflex (ATNR) -- a primitive reflex in which the limbs are extended on the side of the body toward which the head is turned but flexed on the opposite side; also called "fencer's response," see illustration--------->. asymptomatic -- living without symptoms, as in the case of children who are more than 15 months old and test positive for the HIV antibodies but do not show the clinical symptoms of AIDS. ataxia -- the condition of having an unbalanced gait caused by loss of cerebellar control. ataxia telangiectasia -- a multisystem degenerative disease slowly progressive ataxia, telangiectasias (dilation of the capillaries, especially in the sclera, or whites of the eyes, and behind the earlobe), immune defects, elevated alpha-fetoprotein in blood, dystonia or choreoathetosis, dysarthric speech (imperfect articulation due to decreased muscle control), increased sensitivity to radiation, increased risk of malignancy (often lymphoma), eye movement abnormalities, finger contractures, increased risk of sinus and pulmonary infections, congenital deafness, familial manic- depressive illness; intelligence is typically unaffected, but may decline as disease progresses. This disorder is more common among Amish and Mennonite populations. Caused by a mutation in the ATM gene on chromosome 11q22.3, autosomal recessive. ataxic; ataxic gait -- having an unbalanced gait caused by loss of cerebellar control. ataxic cerebral palsy -- a form of cerebral palsy that includes lack of coordination because of a poor sense of balance and body position. About 5% to 10% of people with cerebral palsy have this form. They may walk with an unsteady gait with feet far apart, and they may have difficulty with motions that require precise coordination, such as writing. ataxic dysarthria -- involves difficulty in coordinating the rate, range, and force of speech movements. The person may overshoot or undershoot the appropriate positions of the articulators (lips, tongue, jaw) in speech; see dysarthria. atelierista -- a person trained in the arts who acts as a resource and teaches techniques and skills to children in the schools of Reggio Emilia, Italy. atheroma -- a fatty deposit in the inner lining of an artery, resulting from atherosclerosis. Also called atherosclerotic plaque, arterial plaque, or plaque. atherosclerosis -- a condition in which fatty material collects along the walls of arteries. It hardens, forming calcium deposits, and may eventually block the arteries. athetoid cerebral palsy -- type of cerebral palsy in which individuals cannot control their muscles and so they may have sudden and unexpected twisting motions or other movements. About 10% to 20% of people with cerebral palsy have this form, which affects the entire body. Muscle tone is varied, and associated with uncontrolled movements. Children often have trouble learning to control their bodies enough to sit and walk. Because muscles of the face and tongue can be affected, there also can be difficulties with sucking, swallowing, and speech. athetosis -- constant random, writhing involuntary movement of the limbs. athletic coach parenting style -- parenting style in which parents set out rules for the house, helped by input from the family, teach the children the rules, and apply appropriate penalties for infractions. Atlanto-axial instability -- a problem sometimes seen in children with Down syndrome in which they exhibit increased mobility of the first two neck bones due to laxity of the ligaments that hold these bones together. Atman -- in Hinduism the concept of the individual's soul. This is in contrast to Brahman, the universal soul of which everyone is a part. AT number -- refers to Aarne-Thompson Tale Types atom -- a basic unit of matter that consists of a dense, central nucleus surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged electrons. The nucleus contains a mix of positively charged protons and electrically neutral neutrons (except for hydrogen-1, with no neutrons). The electrons of the atom are bound to the nucleus by electromagnetic force. A group of atoms can remain bound to each other, forming a molecule. An atom containing an equal number of protons and electrons is electrically neutral; otherwise it has a positive or negative charge and is an ion. An atom is classified according to the number of neutrons and protons in its nucleus: the number of protons determines the atomic number and the number of neutrons determines the isotope of the element. (see illustration) atomic number -- the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom, which determines which element the atom is. atonic -- absence of normal muscle tone. atonic seizures -- A seizure characterized by lack of muscle tone. The eyelids droop, the head may nod, and the person may drop things and often falls to the ground. These are sometimes called "drop attacks," "drop seizures," or "akinetic seizures." The person usually remains conscious. atopic dermatitis -- eczema atresia -- congenital absence of a body part or failure of closure of a body orifice. atria -- upper two chambers of the heart (see illustration--------------------------------------------->) atrial septic defect -- congenital anomaly characterized by an abnormal opening between the atria. These defects increase the flow of oxygenated blood to the right side of the heart, which is usually well tolerated, since blood is delivered under much lower pressure than with ventricular septal defect. The defect can lead to atrial arrhythmias, bacterial endocarditis, and congestive heart failure. at risk -- describes a child with indications (biological or environmental) that serious problems may more easily develop; describing a child with exposure to certain adverse conditions and circumstances known to have a high probability of resulting in learning and developmental difficulties. at risk infant or toddler -- (IDEA 2004) an individual under 3 years of age who would be at risk of experiencing a substantial developmental delay if early intervention services were not provided to that individual. atrophy -- a wasting away; a condition in which muscles that are not used shrink in size; a condition in which the brain stops growing and shrinks, with the resulting space in the skull filling with fluid-filled cysts. atropinization -- treatment for cataracts that involves washing the eye with atropine, permanently dilating the pupil. attachment -- positive and trusting bonds between individuals, typically infant and parent or major caregiver; the emotional bond that infants show to a person (usually the mother) with whom they have had a stable, trusting relationship. attachment, post divorce -- continuing to have thoughts about and longings for one's former spouse. attachment process -- building positive and trusting bonds between individuals, usually infants and their parents. attachment theory -- a theory of the origin of love; it suggests primary motivation in life "is to be connected with other people -- because it is the only security we ever have." attenuate -- reduced especially in thickness, density, or force; tapering gradually to a long slender point attention -- the ability to focus on specific stimuli attention deficit -- inability to focus; medical diagnosis, may or not be accompanied by hyperactivity. attention deficit disorder (ADD) -- a condition characterized by hyperactivity, inability to control one's own behavior, and constant movement. In 1997, ADD and ADHD were allowed to be considered disabilities, according to IDEA, under the umbrella of Other Health Impairments. attention deficit hyperactive disorder (ADHD) -- a developmental disorder characterized by impulsivity, hyperactivity, and inattention to a degree that leads to an impairment in functioning; a psychiatric disorder with symptoms occurring before age 7 that includes a pervasive and significant pattern of inattention, impulsivity, and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity.; A diagnostic category of the American Psychiatric Association DSM-IV. In 1997, ADD and ADHD were allowed to be considered disabilities, according to IDEA, under the umbrella of Other Health Impairments; cause is unknown. attention disorders -- children may have difficulty concentrating and remaining "on task." They rarely finish what is started, frequently jump from one activity to another, and are easily distracted by competing stimuli. attention span -- focus perceptual processes on a specific aspect of the environment. attentive listening -- a style of listening focused on fully understanding the speaker's point of view; characterized by encouragement rather than trying to direct or control the speaker. attitude of science -- the use of parsimony and empirical research to determine what is true. attributable risk -- the rate of the condition that can be attributed to exposure of a teratogenic agent. attribution -- an inference or judgment about the cause of a particular event or behavior, concerned with making sense of the world. attribution conflict -- a relationship-ending strategy involving an intense argument between partners that becomes the alleged reason for the breakup. atypical absence seizure -- absence seizures with less abrupt onset or cessation, more pronounced changes in tone, longer duration, onset before 5 years, association with generalized seizure types and mental retardation. Many people who have atypical absence seizures have Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. atypical development -- Any aspect of a child's physical or psychological makeup that is different from what is generally accepted as typical to early childhood. audiogram -- a chart that plots level of hearing ability measured in terms of loudness, decibels (dB), and pitch in Hertz (Hz). audiological evaluation -- the method of determining the degree of hearing loss. audiologist -- a professional who specializes in evaluating hearing ability and treating impaired hearing. audiometer -- an electric device used to detect a person's response to sound stimuli. audiometry -- the testing of hearing audio recorders -- devices that make a taped reproduction of sound. audition -- the act or sense of hearing auditory -- what is experienced through hearing. auditory association -- the ability to associate verbally presented ideas or information. auditory blending -- the act of blending the parts of a word into an integrated whole when speaking. auditory brain stem response (ABR) -- a test to evaluate the processing of sound by the brain stem; also called brainstem auditory evoked response (BAER). It is primarily used to test hearing in infants. auditory canal (external acoustic meatus) -- amplifies and transports sound waves from the external to the middle ear (see illustration). auditory cortex -- the part of the brain that responds to complex musical tones (see illustration). auditory discrimination -- ability to differentiate between various sounds, such as different words, syllables, or environmental noises. auditory hallucinations -- hearing voices that aren't there. auditory memory -- the ability to recall verbally presented material. auditory nerve -- either of the eighth pair of cranial nerves connecting the inner ear with the brain, which transmit hearing and balance impulses (see illustration). auditory perceptual disorder -- also called auditory perceptual problem, central auditory dysfunction, or central auditory processing disorder (CAPD). Difficulty in listening to or comprehending auditory information, especially under less optimal listening conditions (e.g., background noise). Simply, a condition wherein a person does not process speech/language correctly. auditory sensory problems -- sensory problems associated with autism: difficulty processing auditory information, distinguishing background noise from foreground, distortions in speech sounds, time lag in processing. auditory training -- a training method that focuses on enhancing the use of residual hearing abilities. augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) -- adapted high- or light- technological aids that provide students with alternatives to speech to convey their messages. augmentative communication system -- adapted high- or light-technological aids that provide students with alternatives to speech to convey their message. aura -- visual changes or alterations of sensations that represent a simple partial seizure and often precede a complex partial or generalized seizure. auricle -- external part of the ear that carries sound waves to the auditory canal; also called the pinna (can be seen in red ear illustration, above). autarchy -- absolute sovereignty authentic assessment -- Ongoing assessment process that occurs within the student's natural environment and includes observation of a student's performance as well as the necessary supports for the student. Authentic assessment also includes work samples that the student has produced. authentic, direct, or performance assessment -- type of assessment that uses tasks as close as possible to real-life practical and intellectual challenges. Performance assessment refers to the type of pupil response. If motor coordination is to be measured, the child performs an appropriate action. If writing is of concern, the child writes. Authentic assessment refers to the situation or context in which the task is performed. In authentic assessment, the child completes the desired behavior in a context as close to real life as possible. authoritarian parenting -- a style of parenting in which parents try to shape, control, and judge the behaviors and attitudes of their children according to rigid standards of conduct; Diana Baumrind. authoritative parenting -- a style of parenting in which parents encourage verbal give and take and share with their children the reasons behind discipline and household rules; Diana Baumrind. autism -- a pervasive developmental disorder. This diagnosis refers to individuals who display social interaction and communication impairments, as well as repetitive, stereotypic, and restricted interests and activities prior to 36 months of age; often accompanied by moderate or severe mental retardation. Autism was added as a disability category of IDEA in 1990, as part of PL 101-476. The definition of autism in IDEA: a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal communication and social interaction, generally evident before age 3, that adversely affects a child's educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with autism are engagement in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory experiences. Autism Spectrum Disorder -- five pervasive developmental disorders characterized by varying degrees of impairment in communication skills, social interactions, and restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior. The five disorders are Asperger Syndrome; Pervasive Developmental Disorder, Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS); Childhood Disintegrative Disorder; Rett Syndrome; and Autistic Disorder. Autistic Disorder -- moderate to severe range of communication, socialization, and behavioral problems; commonly includes mental retardation. Sometimes it is called early infantile autism or childhood autism; considered the most severe of the autism spectrum disorders. autistic savant -- a rare condition in which an individual with autism displays a brilliant talent or intelligence in a particular area, such as feats of memory, mathematics, or music. autoantibodies -- antibodies that mistakenly target and damage specific tissues or organs of the body. This often results in a chronic autoimmune disorder. autobiographical memory -- representations of special, one-time events that are long-lasting because they are imbued with personal meaning. auto education -- In Montessori terms, the self-learning that occurs as a result of a child independently interacting with a carefully planned environment. autoeroticism -- Freud: Havelock Ellis's term for the baby's habit of pleasing itself sensually with its own body. In normal development, it gives way to an eroticism directed at love partners. autoimmune -- reaction in which one's immune system attacks other parts of the body. autoimmune disorder -- a disease or disorder in which the immune system mistakenly attacks the body, targeting the tissue, cells, and organs. The immune system normally works to defend the body and eliminate infections caused by bacteria, viruses, and other invading microbes. Some autoimmune disorders are type 1 diabetes mellitus, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, multiple sclerosis, lupus, psoriasis, HIV, and AIDS. autoimmune hemolytic anemia -- a type of anemia in which the immune system mistakes red blood cells as foreign invaders and begins destroying them. automatic (protective) movement reactions -- motor responses that become evident in the first year of life, permitting normal motor development progression. Examples include neck righting and propping responses. automatic reflexes -- motor responses that become evident in the first year of life, permitting normal motor development progression. Examples include neck righting and propping responses. automatisms -- automatic fine motor movements (e.g., unbuttoning one's clothing) that are part of a seizure. autonomic nervous system -- the part of the nervous system that regulates certain autonomic functions of the body -- for example -- heart rate, sweating, and bowel movement. autonomic power pattern -- a power pattern in a marriage in which both partners have about equal authority but in different areas of life; both make decisions in their particular domains independent of the other. autonomic seizures -- seizures with autonomic symptoms or signs, such as abdominal discomfort or nausea, which may rise into the throat, stomach pain, gas in the intestines, belching, flatulence, vomiting, pallor, flushing, sweating, hair standing on end, dilation of the pupils, changes in heart rate or respiration, urination, pr occasional sexual arousal. autonomous binuclear family -- divorced spouses maintain a friendly relationship, but a low level of interaction. autonomous morality stage -- Piagetian stage of moral development in which one believes that rules can be changed by the will of those involved. autonomy -- the ability to govern oneself and make independent decisions. Maslow: part of being self-actualizing is the enjoyment of autonomy. autonomy vs. shame and doubt -- in Erikson's theory, the psychological conflict of toddlerhood, which is resolved positively if parents provide young children with suitable guidance and reasonable choices. The second stage, ages 1 -- 3. autosomal dominant gene -- deviations or disorders that pass through generations and are carried on one of the non-sex chromosomes (or autosome). autosomal dominant genetic inheritance -- a genetic inheritance of a trait that has to be carried by only one parent. If the child inherits the trait from that one parent, the child will be affected with the disability. Statistically, it is passed to 50% of their children. autosomal dominant (trait) -- a genetic trait carried on the autosomes. The disorder appears when one of a pair of chromosomes contains the abnormal gene. Statistically, it is passed on from the affected parent to half of the children. autosomal recessive gene -- a gene carried by healthy parents on any one chromosome except the sex chromosome that, if inherited from both parents, results in a child with a medical condition not present in the parents. autosomal recessive genetic inheritance -- a genetic inheritance of a trait which one or both asymptomatic parents carry the gene. The child must inherit two abnormal genes (one from each parent) in order to be affected. If the child inherits one, s/he will be asymptomatic also (a carrier). Statistically the chance is 25% of being a carrier (with only one carrier parent). autosomal recessive (trait) -- a genetic trait carried on the autosomes. Both asymptomatic parents must carry the trait to produce an affected child. The child has two abnormal genes. The risk of recurrence in subsequent children is 25%. autosomes -- the first 22 pairs of chromosomes, which account for most of the body cells. avatar -- an incarnation or manifestation of a Hindu god as a human hero. Two of the gods in Vishnu's human avatars were said to be kinds, Krishna and Rama. aversive -- pertaining to a stimulus, often unpleasant that decreases the likelihood a particular response will subsequently occur. AVM -- see arterial-venous malformation. avoidance -- a person's tendency to minimize issues and a reluctance to deal with issues directly. avoidance style -- a style of conflict resolution characterized by non-assertive and passive behavior; avoiders often withdraw from the conflict or change the subject. avoidant -- refers to a style of attachment reflecting independence and a lack of emotional involvement. avoidant adults -- adults who are somewhat uncomfortable being close to, trusting, and being dependant on others. avoidant attachment -- pattern characterized by conspicuous avoidance of contact or interaction with the caregiver. avuncular -- of or relating to an uncle; suggestive of an uncle in kindliness or geniality axillary -- armpit, underarm; the contents of the axilla include the axillary vein and artery, as well as the brachial plexus, lymph nodes, and fat. axon -- the long part of a neuron that is located at the cell base and sends messages to other neurons. They can be up to a meter long. There is just one axon per neuron, but axons can subdivide to connect with many dendrites. Axons often build up a fatty white insulation called myelin (see illustration right over there ----------->). AZT (zidovudine/azidothymidine) -- medical drug used to treat AIDS (also called retrovir). |
| Another real thing! I am not dead yet! --Keri Hulme |
| "The White Girl" by James McNeill Whistler, indicative of the Aesthetic Movement in art. |
| The Aesir descending the Rainbow Bridge. |
| "The Advocate" by Thierry Poncelet |
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